Symbolic Representation, Gender, and Women in Policing: Theoretical Inquiry and Empirical Investigation

Abstract

Representative bureaucracy continues to be a crucial theoretical concept and research topic in public administration studies. Extensive studies have discussed how passive representation of bureaucrats can translate to their active advocacy for the represented social group, while research on the symbolic effects of passive representation from the citizens’ side is much more recent and still limited. This dissertation attempts to advance the research of symbolic representation by asking: To what extent does symbolic representation matter? What are the essential factors that influence the manifestation of symbolic representation and how do they work? Employing different methodological approaches, this dissertation investigates the salience of symbolic representation and potential impact factors to its occurrence, with a particular empirical focus on gender representation in the domain of policing.

The dissertation is structured around three connected studies. Study 1 (Chapter Two) conducts a meta-analysis examining the relationship between passive representation and its symbolic effects. The meta-regression analysis explores the moderating roles of various factors, including the level of measurement of representativeness, organizational stratification, represented identity, representation outcome, policy context, national context, and research design. Findings reveal a statistically significant, though weak, positive overall relationship, indicating that passive representation can yield tangible democratic outcomes. However, this relationship is contingent on several contextual factors, such as the level of organizational stratification and research design.

Building on the findings of Study 1, Study 2 (Chapter Three) employs a survey experiment in China to examine whether symbolic representation of gender in policing is contingent on bureaucratic hierarchy. The experiment manipulates gender representation at both the frontline and leadership levels. Results reveal that, while female representation at the frontline positively impacts citizens’ evaluations of the police department’s effectiveness in addressing gender-based crimes, the effects of female leadership are less pronounced, suggesting a nuanced relationship between bureaucratic hierarchy and symbolic representation. This chapter also explores the heterogeneous effects for male and female participants.

Study 3 (Chapter Four) extends the investigation to the role of dynamic gender-typed traits within the context of female leadership in Chinese policing. This study further examines how citizens’ evaluations of female leaders are moderated by the salience of specific policy contexts (gender-based vs. non-gender-based crimes) and the presentation of either feminine or masculine traits. The findings suggest that role congruity may be a boundary condition to the symbolic representation. While female leadership is perceived positively for addressing gender-based crimes, its symbolic benefits may be attenuated by the salience of policy contexts and the expectation of highly agentic traits.

Overall, this dissertation provides a comprehensive examination of symbolic representation, demonstrating the significant but complex nature of its effects, and offering practical implications concerning gender representation in policing. The findings highlight the need for future research to explore the interplay of various contextual and individual-level factors in shaping the symbolic effects of representation in diverse settings, further advancing the theoretical and practical understanding of representative bureaucracy.

Date of Award	12 May 2025
Original language	English
Awarding Institution	City University of Hong Kong
Supervisor	Bert GEORGE (Supervisor) & Richard M WALKER (External Co-Supervisor)