Individualization, Social Capital and Their Impacts on the Well-being of Older Adults

Abstract

Ample studies have suggested the ambiguous effects of individualization. However, the theoretical linkages between individualization, social capital, stress and well-being have been underexplored, particularly in Hong Kong, which contains facilitators of individualization and Chinese culture. Aging is a prominent influential factor in Hong Kong. Equivocal findings have suggested that age intensifies the ambivalent effects of individualization, social capital, stress and well-being. However, research and evidence that identify which type of stress results from individualization and how it influences the well-being of an older adult are slim. This study aims to identify such associations and hence strengthen discrepancy theory.
Although numerous studies have found that social capital has salutary effects on well-being, a number of studies have shown the negative effects of social capital on well-being, particularly among older adults. These effects aggravate the ambiguity between social capital and well-being. This study aims to pinpoint the relationship between social capital and well-being and hence strengthen resource theory.
Furthermore, little attention has been paid to how social capital as a resource buffers the effects of individualization on well-being. According to discrepancy theory, individualization generates discrepancies between an older adult’s ideal and current states. Such discrepancies have a detrimental effect on well-being and create needs. The resource of social capital fulfills such needs to sustain well-being. Hence, this study aims to show the capabilities of discrepancy and resource theories, and to integrate them further. Apart from this, the literature identifies many different forms of social capital, making comparisons challenging. Hence, this study aims to standardize the measurement of social capital and identify which form of social capital is specifically useful for offsetting the destructive influence of individualization on well-being. It also further elaborates the effects of capitalization on the integration of discrepancy and resource theories.
This study adopted a mixed approach that included three stages from late 2014 to late 2015. For the qualitative study in Stage 1 (September to December 2014), 15 focus groups recruited 90 older adults aged 60 or older to participate via purposive sampling. Each group mainly discussed individualization, stress, social capital, well-being, and the associations between them. Stage 1 yielded 13 major factors and showed how individualization led to stress and influenced the well-being of older adults. It also showed that social capital counteracted the negative effects of individualization on well- being. Through a process of screening and refinement, the responses elicited from the focus groups helped to construct questions for the subsequent questionnaire in Stage 2.
In the quantitative study conducted in Stage 2 (April to August 2015), 773 older adults aged 60 or older were recruited through purposive sampling to respond to a questionnaire. The findings revealed that individualization had positive effects on stress and negative effects on social capital and well-being. They also showed that the interaction between social capital and individualization had positive effects on well-being.
For the qualitative study conducted in Stage 3 (October to December 2015), 32 of the older adults who completed the questionnaire in Stage 2 were invited via purposive sampling to participate in individual in-depth interviews. The interviewees provided insights into how the interaction between individualization and social capital had beneficial effects on well-being and the reasons for adopting various forms of social capital to sustain well-being.
This study has a number of implications. Theoretically, it is capable of integrating discrepancy and resource theories through quantitative analysis, and shows that their interaction effects positively influence well-being, particularly hedonic well-being. A number of interviewees from the qualitative group explained that volunteering and seeking help from their family members and friends maintained their well-being. Furthermore, cultural and aging specificity that hinder the integration of discrepancy and resource theories were identified. Eudaimonic well-being is similar to the virtue of the Chinese cultural and decreases over age. It explains the mismatch in the social capital and eudaimonic well-being of older adults. Physical well-being is highly determined by the functional ability of older adults; hence, perceived individualization has indirect effects on well-being. Even with the assistance of social capital to offset the negative influence on well-being, there is a mismatch between the interaction effect and physical well-being. Capitalization, which describes the ability to use resources and the motivation of older adults to adopt resources, extended as an elaboration of integration of discrepancy and resource theories. For instance, the quantitative results show that structural, informal and natural social capital contribute more to hedonic and physical well-being, and that functional, formal and programmed social capital contribute more to eudaimonic well- being, as explained by the interviewees. The older interviewees explained that they adopted resources from informal and natural settings to fulfill hedonic and psychical needs, and used resources (including professional knowledge) from formal and programmed settings to build their eudaimonic well-being. Both the quantitative and qualitative findings of this study show that older adults assess which resources they are able or motivated to use. In terms of the practical implications, the findings show that various forms of social capital contribute to well-being. For instance, bonding social capital from family contributes the most to well-being. The interaction between bridging social capital from the center and stressors has a positive effect on well-being. Therefore, policies including the “aging in place” policy and others that enhance family and community inclusion, support the role of the social center and promote social capital among older adults are supported. This study also discusses the concepts behind the practices of neo-liberalism and communitarianism. Although communitarianism policies may be more suitable for older adults, neo-liberalism policies have been launched in Hong Kong. Therefore, an accommodation of these two concepts is suggested. An institution that serves the function of a consumer council, ensures information equality and offers trustworthy opinions to older adults should be established.
In conclusion, this study makes a number of contributions. In terms of its theoretical contributions, it strengthens and integrates discrepancy and resource theories. It also arrives at empirical quantitative and qualitative findings that show that the needs generated by the discrepancies resulting from individualization are fulfilled by resources, particularly social capital. In other words, the findings of this study enrich the literature by clarifying the confounding findings associated with certain relevant variables. In terms of its contributions to practice, this study supports the “aging in place” policy, the promotion of filial piety and family and community inclusion.

Date of Award	22 Jul 2016
Original language	English
Awarding Institution	City University of Hong Kong
Supervisor	Chau Kiu Jacky CHEUNG (Supervisor) & Man Hung Raymond NGAN (Supervisor)