What we know and do not know about Asian horseshoe crabs

This concluding chapter summarizes recent knowledge, identifies information gaps, and reviews conservation priorities for Asian horseshoe crabs based on management of its American counterpart, Limulus polyphemus. Despite advancement in understanding their biology, physiology, and ecology, critical information gaps include: (1) response and regulatory mechanisms during embryo development against environmental stressors, (2) spatial distribution of genetic variation among populations, particularly in important areas for genetic connectivity and gene flow, and (3) standardized monitoring for population status analyses amidst overharvesting for human consumption and biomedical uses. Lessons can be learned from the conservation of L. polyphemus under an adaptive management framework and regulatory control from the US Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. While emerging genomic, telemetry, and biologging technologies can further Asian horseshoe crab research, their future will rely on coordinated multinational conservation efforts, with partnerships among management agencies and nongovernmental organizations. © 2026 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.