Two models of character education in East Asia: reflection vs. indoctrination

This paper argues that the conventional association between Confucian character education and conformism and indoctrination results from the failure to distinguish between the Confucian reflection model and the Legalist indoctrination model. Though both models of Chinese character education aim to build and maintain a well-ordered society, there are significant differences between the two in terms of nature, method, and purpose of character-building. While the indoctrination model is primarily concerned with the development of dispositions and (passive) virtues that incline individuals to uncritically conform to the rules and regulations promulgated by the state, the reflection model underscores critical engagement in learning, which aims to produce reflexive moral agents who contribute to an active yet critical citizenship, thus rendering the process of social harmonization interactive, dynamic, and transformative. This paper concludes by drawing attention to the underappreciated connection between the political system and character education. © 2025 National Institute of Education, Singapore.