Stable comprehensive dopants for efficient and scalable perovskite solar cells

Francesco Vanin; Thomas Webb; Danpeng Gao; Katharine Welch; William D.J. Tremlett; Liangchen Qian; Chunlei Zhang; Ryan K. Brown; Andrew J.P. White; Nicola Gasparini; Li Bo; Zonglong Zhu; Saif A. Haque; Nicholas J. Long

doi:10.1016/j.joule.2025.102310

Stable comprehensive dopants for efficient and scalable perovskite solar cells

Francesco Vanin (Co-first Author), Thomas Webb (Co-first Author), Danpeng Gao (Co-first Author), Katharine Welch, William D.J. Tremlett, Liangchen Qian, Chunlei Zhang, Ryan K. Brown, Andrew J.P. White, Nicola Gasparini, Li Bo, Zonglong Zhu^*, Saif A. Haque^*, Nicholas J. Long^*

^*Corresponding author for this work

Department of Chemistry

Research output: Journal Publications and Reviews › RGC 21 - Publication in refereed journal › peer-review

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Abstract

Controlled doping of organic semiconductors is crucial for their application in optoelectronic devices. In perovskite solar cells (PSCs), breakthrough efficiencies have relied on doped Spiro-OMeTAD hole transport materials. However, the ubiquitous adoption of multicomponent lithium-based doping schemes, known for their hygroscopic, volatile, and temperamental nature, remains a major issue for n-i-p PSCs. Therefore, next-generation dopants must be re-engineered from first principles. Here, we report a class of tailored ferrocenium oxidants as high-performance, comprehensive Spiro-OMeTAD dopants. Tuning ferrocenium reduction potentials enables near-quantitative Spiro-OMeTAD^⋅+ conversion, affording optimal electronic and energetic properties. The resulting ferrocenium-doped PSCs outperform conventional counterparts, achieving device and module efficiencies of 26.13% and 22.21%, respectively, with ultra-low dopant loadings. Devices show excellent operational stability, retaining 95% (unheated) and 87% (held at 65°C) of the initial efficiency after 1,000 h of continuous operation. Our results reveal the unrecognized potential of comprehensive doping paradigms in PSCs and beyond.
© 2026 The Authors.

Original language	English
Article number	102310
Journal	Joule
Volume	10
Issue number	3
Online published	2 Mar 2026
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2025.102310
Publication status	Published - 18 Mar 2026

Research Keywords

ferrocenium oxidants
high-efficiency perovskite solar cells
n-i-p perovskite solar cells
organic semiconductor doping
perovskite solar cells
photovoltaics
redox-tunable dopants
spiro-OMeTAD doping
ultra-low dopant loading

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title = "Stable comprehensive dopants for efficient and scalable perovskite solar cells",

abstract = "Controlled doping of organic semiconductors is crucial for their application in optoelectronic devices. In perovskite solar cells (PSCs), breakthrough efficiencies have relied on doped Spiro-OMeTAD hole transport materials. However, the ubiquitous adoption of multicomponent lithium-based doping schemes, known for their hygroscopic, volatile, and temperamental nature, remains a major issue for n-i-p PSCs. Therefore, next-generation dopants must be re-engineered from first principles. Here, we report a class of tailored ferrocenium oxidants as high-performance, comprehensive Spiro-OMeTAD dopants. Tuning ferrocenium reduction potentials enables near-quantitative Spiro-OMeTAD⋅+ conversion, affording optimal electronic and energetic properties. The resulting ferrocenium-doped PSCs outperform conventional counterparts, achieving device and module efficiencies of 26.13% and 22.21%, respectively, with ultra-low dopant loadings. Devices show excellent operational stability, retaining 95% (unheated) and 87% (held at 65°C) of the initial efficiency after 1,000 h of continuous operation. Our results reveal the unrecognized potential of comprehensive doping paradigms in PSCs and beyond. {\textcopyright} 2026 The Authors.",

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author = "Francesco Vanin and Thomas Webb and Danpeng Gao and Katharine Welch and Tremlett, {William D.J.} and Liangchen Qian and Chunlei Zhang and Brown, {Ryan K.} and White, {Andrew J.P.} and Nicola Gasparini and Li Bo and Zonglong Zhu and Haque, {Saif A.} and Long, {Nicholas J.}",

year = "2026",

month = mar,

day = "18",

doi = "10.1016/j.joule.2025.102310",

language = "English",

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T1 - Stable comprehensive dopants for efficient and scalable perovskite solar cells

AU - Vanin, Francesco

AU - Webb, Thomas

AU - Gao, Danpeng

AU - Welch, Katharine

AU - Tremlett, William D.J.

AU - Qian, Liangchen

AU - Zhang, Chunlei

AU - Brown, Ryan K.

AU - White, Andrew J.P.

AU - Gasparini, Nicola

AU - Bo, Li

AU - Zhu, Zonglong

AU - Haque, Saif A.

AU - Long, Nicholas J.

PY - 2026/3/18

Y1 - 2026/3/18

N2 - Controlled doping of organic semiconductors is crucial for their application in optoelectronic devices. In perovskite solar cells (PSCs), breakthrough efficiencies have relied on doped Spiro-OMeTAD hole transport materials. However, the ubiquitous adoption of multicomponent lithium-based doping schemes, known for their hygroscopic, volatile, and temperamental nature, remains a major issue for n-i-p PSCs. Therefore, next-generation dopants must be re-engineered from first principles. Here, we report a class of tailored ferrocenium oxidants as high-performance, comprehensive Spiro-OMeTAD dopants. Tuning ferrocenium reduction potentials enables near-quantitative Spiro-OMeTAD⋅+ conversion, affording optimal electronic and energetic properties. The resulting ferrocenium-doped PSCs outperform conventional counterparts, achieving device and module efficiencies of 26.13% and 22.21%, respectively, with ultra-low dopant loadings. Devices show excellent operational stability, retaining 95% (unheated) and 87% (held at 65°C) of the initial efficiency after 1,000 h of continuous operation. Our results reveal the unrecognized potential of comprehensive doping paradigms in PSCs and beyond. © 2026 The Authors.

AB - Controlled doping of organic semiconductors is crucial for their application in optoelectronic devices. In perovskite solar cells (PSCs), breakthrough efficiencies have relied on doped Spiro-OMeTAD hole transport materials. However, the ubiquitous adoption of multicomponent lithium-based doping schemes, known for their hygroscopic, volatile, and temperamental nature, remains a major issue for n-i-p PSCs. Therefore, next-generation dopants must be re-engineered from first principles. Here, we report a class of tailored ferrocenium oxidants as high-performance, comprehensive Spiro-OMeTAD dopants. Tuning ferrocenium reduction potentials enables near-quantitative Spiro-OMeTAD⋅+ conversion, affording optimal electronic and energetic properties. The resulting ferrocenium-doped PSCs outperform conventional counterparts, achieving device and module efficiencies of 26.13% and 22.21%, respectively, with ultra-low dopant loadings. Devices show excellent operational stability, retaining 95% (unheated) and 87% (held at 65°C) of the initial efficiency after 1,000 h of continuous operation. Our results reveal the unrecognized potential of comprehensive doping paradigms in PSCs and beyond. © 2026 The Authors.

KW - ferrocenium oxidants

KW - high-efficiency perovskite solar cells

KW - n-i-p perovskite solar cells

KW - organic semiconductor doping

KW - perovskite solar cells

KW - photovoltaics

KW - redox-tunable dopants

KW - spiro-OMeTAD doping

KW - ultra-low dopant loading

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U2 - 10.1016/j.joule.2025.102310

DO - 10.1016/j.joule.2025.102310

M3 - RGC 21 - Publication in refereed journal

SN - 2542-4351

VL - 10

JO - Joule

JF - Joule

IS - 3

M1 - 102310

ER -

Stable comprehensive dopants for efficient and scalable perovskite solar cells

Abstract

Research Keywords

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