Legal Trade or Smuggling? Intermediators in the Sino-Spanish Commercial Interactions in the Late Sixteenth Century

This study focuses on the role Chinese merchants, particularly smugglers and pirates played in Sino-Spanish commercial interactions in the late sixteenth century. These intermediators are viewed as equal agent as both Chinese and Spanish authorities in this study. They played a crucial role in intelligence gathering for both sides and acted as important mediators in the communication and negotiation processes due to their bilingual or trilingual capabilities. These all closely connect to the formation of perception to the other, which subsequently decided the strategies and policies adopted by each side towards the other.
The study begins by providing background information on the persistent endeavors of Spanish colonial authorities in the Philippines to obtain permission from Chinese authorities for a settlement in Xiamen (廈門) for free trade with China, and their continuous failure in achieving the goal. It then explores the active involvement of licensed merchants, smugglers, and pirates in the thriving trade between China and Spanish-Luzon since 1571. By investigating the reasons behind the enduring significance of illegal trade even after China partially released its sea ban policy in 1567, the research delves into the encounters of the trading systems and regulations of the two empires, and the subsequent conflicts and syncretization. Based on these findings, a more comprehensive understanding of cooperation, conflicts, and adaptations during the Spanish entry into the long-established network of the South China Sea can be gained within the context of the early stages of globalization.