Inclusion, Participation, and the Rule for the People: Yi I’s Neo-Confucian Vision

Despite a plethora of studies highlighting the significant philosophical differences between classical Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism, little attention has been paid to the distinctive characteristics of the latter as a political tradition. Moreover, contemporary Confucian political theory generally derives its philosophical inspiration from classical Confucianism without paying much attention to Neo-Confucianism, its strong influences in East Asia notwithstanding. This essay shows that Yi I 李珥, a prominent 16th-century Korean Neo-Confucian, developed an inclusive and participatory vision of “rule for the people” by reformulating the Mencian ideal of a humane government. After examining Yi I’s reconceptualization of the people from passive beneficiaries of a benevolent ruler’s service into active political agents capable of forming political judgment and contributing to the public good, and discussing its normative implications in relation to humane government, this paper concludes by discussing the potential contribution Yi I’s Neo-Confucian political theory can make to contemporary Confucian political theory. © The Author(s) 2025