Dynamics of charges and redox sites for advancing artificial photosynthesis of H₂, H₂O₂, and CO₂-to-multiproducts

The artificial photosynthesis of value-added products (particularly H₂, H₂O₂, and multiple chemicals from CO₂) offers a potential solution to energy and environmental challenges. The efficiency of artificial photosynthesis highly depends on the dynamics of the charge carriers and redox sites (termed D-CC-RS) in the reactor system. However, the coexistence, complex nature, and abrupt interplay between D-CC-RS and redox mechanisms necessitate an in-depth elucidation, especially on how these can be tuned towards desired redox reactions for future research. Herein, we assess, segregate and demonstrate D-CC-RS interaction with the redox mechanism, offering in-depth guidelines towards the required product. Typically, after featuring the importance of D-CC-RS in targeted reactions, we depict exclusive engineering techniques to pinpoint the enhanced D-CC-RS in discrete materials with their activity trend. Finally, the challenges, solutions, required transition from lab to industry, and outlook are depicted with a focus on D-CC-RS. Unlike reported literature, this review aims to address the persistent research challenge of elucidating the coexistence and uncontrollability of D-CC-RS, which results in varied reaction mechanisms and products, thus providing a timely yet extended understanding for advancing material design and artificial photosynthesis. © 2026 Elsevier Ltd.