Determinants and Consequences of Dual Frames of Reference Among Rural-to-Urban Migrants in China

This study investigates how rural-to-urban migrants in China select dual frames of reference and how these choices shape their subjective well-being. It challenges conventional approaches that treat reference group comparisons as single and unordered, with a focus on either host or home comparisons. Drawing on original 2024 survey data from 15 cities, the study explores how integration into the host society and translocal ties to origin communities influence dual frames of reference. The findings show that economically integrated migrants tend to prioritize host-based comparisons, but many retain a secondary frame that is tied to rural/home communities or migrant peers. Meanwhile, strong translocal ties reinforce rural/home comparisons, suggesting that some migrants do not fully shift to host-based perspectives. Reference group frames influence subjective well-being differently under benchmark-exceedance (i.e., migrants economically outperform host residents) and benchmark-deficit (i.e., migrants economically underperform host residents) contexts. Our sample reflects the former. In this context, frames that prioritize urban residents yield the highest subjective well-being, while home residents yield the lowest, consistent with aspiration realization rather than relative deprivation. These findings contribute to reference group theory in migration research by showing how migrants navigate multiple comparisons and balance aspirations, competition, and identity throughout the integration process.

© 2026 The Author(s)