Current analytical methodologies and gaps for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances determination in the marine environment

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have attracted worldwide concern. As the phase-out and substitution of PFASs continue to progress, substantial research efforts are being invested into researching the distribution and potential adverse effects of these substances. Oceans are the main final global sinks for most PFASs, and the marine environment plays a key role in their global transport and environmental fate. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the behavior of PFASs in the marine environment is clearly required, and an overall assessment of the methodologies for the analysis of PFASs is crucial. In this review, we introduce protocols for the entire process of tracing PFASs in the marine environment, covering methodologies from sample collection, preparation to instrumental analysis, identification of novel analytes, and risk assessment. Analytical concerns related to extractable organic fluorine are also included. The protocols are critically discussed in terms of their advantages, limitations, and potential for further development.