Crafting virtual cities: procedural generation of 3D urban environments with general-purpose game engines

The paper examines how general-purpose game engines (Unreal, Unity) intersect with procedural city generation to craft multi-domain, large-scale, real-time urban environments via data-oriented, algorithmic pipelines. We argue that procedurally generated cities act as dual-type automata, that is modular visual assemblies coupled with interconnected data layers, yet operate within closed rule spaces that encode grid-based biases, constraining which cities and urban imaginaries can be computationally realized. Analyzing procedural content generation within engines demonstrates that tool bias extends beyond single artifacts. Algorithmic manipulation of asset repositories and software interoperability enable automation of complex cityscapes, underpinning implicit ideologies of urban planning. Through case studies (The Matrix Awakens; Megacity), the study examines iterative workflows and interplay among visual aesthetics, behavioural rules, and data-driven parameters that limit organic, emergent forms. This work is relevant to academics, creative practitioners, and designers in architecture, urban planning, film, game development, informing about limitations and theoretical implications of tool-specific procedural generation. © 2026 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.