Contrasting toxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics to the rotifer Brachionus koreanus in the presence of zinc oxide nanoparticles and zinc ions

Emerging contaminants such as nanoplastics and nanoparticles likely experience similar environmental behaviours, fate and effects but our knowledge of their combined toxicity is scanty. This study, therefore, investigated the joint toxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics (PNPs) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) to an ecologically important rotifer Brachionus koreanus, and compared with the joint toxicity of PNPs and Zn ions (Zn-IONs from ZnSO₄·7H₂O). With increasing concentration, ZnO-NPs formed significant agglomeration with PNPs for up to 1.3 times of the original hydrodynamic size of ZnO-NPs, alongside doubling in their sedimentation and thereby losing 58% of their released Zn ions. In contrast, the availability of Zn-IONs was less affected by the agglomeration and sedimentation of PNPs, with only a loss of 18% of Zn ions at the highest concentration of PNPs. Consequently, as suggested by Concentration Addition and Independent Action models and the Model Deviation Ratios, ZnO-NPs and PNPs exerted an antagonistic interaction whereas Zn-IONs and PNPs exhibited an additive effect. We also advocate the use of the Nonparametric Response Surface method, which is more useful to predict the toxicity of chemical mixtures with interacting effects. Our findings suggested a potential difference between particle-particle and particle-ion interactions, especially at higher test concentrations, which may eventually affect their toxicity. We, therefore, call for a more systematic evaluation of commonly coexisting chemical mixtures which consist of nanoplastics and manufactured nanomaterials.